The species of Taxus are more geographically than morphologically separable; and they were all treated by Pilger (1903) as subspecies of Taxus baccata. All species are poisonous; most contain the anti-cancer agent taxol; and a study of heartwood constituents of Taxus baccata, Taxus brevifolia, Taxus cuspidata and Taxus floridana found them to be chemically almost identical. However, the vast ecological amplitude displayed by the various described species (over 60° of latitude and an impressive temperature and precipitation range) suggests that they are, in a meaningful sense, true species. Detailed study of the genus (not neglecting the cultivated representatives), including extensive fieldwork, is much needed and long overdue[].

Common Name: Yew

General Information

Taxus baccata is an evergreen shrub or a tree with a pyramidal crown that develops in maturity to a rounded or wide-spreading head of branches; it can grow 9 - 12 metres tall, exceptionally to 18 metres. The bole is generally short and can be up to 400cm in diameter[].
The plant is harvested from the wild for local use as a food, medicine and source of materials. Often grown as an ornamental in gardens, the plant can be used as a hedge and a ground cover - there are many named varieties.
Taxus baccata) has a very extensive range throughout Europe and beyond. Exploitation and attempts at eradication are no longer current. Cultivated rather than wild populations are exploited for chemical compounds to produce Taxol unlike the situation with other yew species. Expansion is observed in many woodlands in recent decades.The plant is classified as 'Least Concern' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(2013)[].

Known Hazards

All parts of the plant, except the flesh of the fruit (actually an aril), are potentially highly poisonous. They contain the alkaloid taxine and , if ingested, can cause nervousness, trembling, slow pulse, pupil dilation, difficult breathing, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, weakness and convulsions - in larger doses it can be fatal, having a paralyzing affect on the heart[, , , , , , ].
Yew was also employed in a less forthright manner, as a poison, used for assassination, suicide, as an arrow poison, and to poison fish and mammals[]

Botanical References

, ,

Range

Eurasia - Norway to Portugal, east to eastern European Russia, Transcaucasia, Turkey and northern Iran; Africa - Morocco, Algeria

Habitat

Woods and scrub, usually on limestone. It sometimes forms pure stands in sheltered sites on chalk in the south-east and on limestone in the north-west[].

Properties

Conservation Status	Least Concern
Edibility Rating
Medicinal Rating
Other Uses Rating
Habit	Evergreen Tree
Height	15.00 m
Growth Rate	Slow
Pollinators	Wind
Self-fertile	No
Cultivation Status	Ornamental, Wild

Cultivation Details

Taxus baccata is a very cold hardy plant when dormant, tolerating temperatures down to about -25°c[]. The fresh young shoots in spring, however, are much more sensitive and can be damaged even by light frosts[, ].
A very easy plant to grow, it is extremely tolerant of cold and heat, sunny and shady positions, wet and dry soils, exposure and any pH[]. Thrives in almost any soil, acid or alkaline, as long as it is well-drained[, , ]. Grows well in heavy clay soils. Sensitive to soil compaction by roads etc[, ]. Very shade tolerant[, ]. Tolerates urban pollution[]. In general they are very tolerant of exposure, though plants are damaged by severe maritime exposure and they dislike cold, dry winds[, ].
Plants are dioecious, though they sometimes change sex and monoecious trees are sometimes found[, ]. Generally, both male and female forms must be grown if fruit and seed is required[]. The fruit is produced mainly on the undersides of one-year old branches[].
A very long lived tree[, , , ], one report suggests that a tree in Perthshire is 1,500 years old, making it the oldest plant in Britain. Another report says that trees can be up to 4,000 years old[]. It is, however, slow growing and usually takes about 20 years to reach a height of 4.5 metres[]. Young plants occasionally grow 30cm in a year but this soon tails off and virtually no height increase is made after 100 years[].
A very ornamental tree, there are many named varieties[].
Very resistant to honey fungus[, , ], but susceptible to phytopthera root rot[, ].
The toxicity of this plant to cattle and horses has led to the extermination of Taxus baccata from many woodlands in past centuries, at a time when almost all woodland served for grazing animals[].
The bark is very soft and branches or even the whole tree can be killed if the bark is removed by constant friction such as by children climbing the tree[].
Plants produce very little fibrous root and should be planted in their final positions when still small[].
The fruit is greatly relished by thrushes[].

Taxus baccata is capable of growing under (not entirely closed) canopy of beech (Fagus spp.) as well as other deciduous broad-leaved trees, but it will only develop to large trees in more open situations. In Switzerland, the richest area of Central Europe for yew, it forms a yew-beech wood on cool, steep marl slopes in the Jura and the foothills of the Alps up to 1,400 m a.s.l. (Ellenberg 1988). Under the evergreen Common Yew, nothing else will grow. In England, T. Baccata is best developed on chalk downs - again on steep slopes - and can form extensive stands outside the beech woods invading down grassland. In much of Europe where the climate is less oceanic it survives better in mixed forests, coniferous as well as mixed broad-leaved-conifer forests, again mostly on limestone substrates, and often occupying rocky cliffs and slopes. On acid soils yews perform less well under canopy and usually do not develop beyond a sapling stage in woods. Its northern limits in Scandinavia are determined by its sensitivity to severe frost. Its toxicity (all parts except the red arils around the seeds) prevent browsing by cattle and sheep, but not by rabbits and deer, as these animals have developed a level of immunity to the dangerous alkaloids. Apart from seed germination (dispersed by birds), T. Baccata readily regenerates from stumps and roots (suckers); ancient hollow trees may rejuvenate constantly in this way. When planted, e.g. In church yards and cemeteries, soil pH seems unimportant; some of the largest and presumably oldest specimen trees in NW Europe, in particular Brittany (France) and the British Isles, are known from such locations and were planted probably since Celtic times[]

Edible Uses

Fruit - raw[, , , , ]. Very sweet and gelatinous, most people find it delicious though some find it sickly[]. A number of people who like the flavour do not like the texture which is often described as being 'snotty'[]
All other parts of this plant, including the seed, are highly poisonous. When eating the fruit you should spit out the large seed found in the fruit's centre. Should you swallow the whole seed it will just pass straight through you without harm. If it is bitten into, however, you will notice a very bitter flavour and the seed should immediately be spat out or it could cause some problems. The fruit is a fleshy berry about 10mm in diameter and containing a single seed[].

Some reports suggest using the bark as a tea substitute[, ], this would probably be very unwise.

Medicinal

The yew tree is a highly toxic plant that has occasionally been used medicinally, mainly in the treatment of chest complaints. Modern research has shown that the plants contain the substance 'taxol' in their shoots. Taxol has shown exciting potential as an anti-cancer drug, particularly in the treatment of ovarian cancers[]. Unfortunately, the concentrations of taxol in this species are too low to be of much value commercially, though it is being used for research purposes[]. This remedy should be used with great caution and only under the supervision of a qualified practitioner[]. See also the notes above on toxicity.

All parts of the plant, except the fleshy fruit, are antispasmodic, cardiotonic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, narcotic and purgative[, ]. The leaves have been used internally in the treatment of asthma, bronchitis, hiccup, indigestion, rheumatism and epilepsy[, ].
Externally, the leaves have been used in a steam bath as a treatment for rheumatism[].

The fleshy fruit (aril), removed from the seed, is diuretic and laxative[].

A homeopathic remedy is made from the young shoots and the berries[]. It is used in the treatment of many diseases including cystitis, eruptions, headaches, heart and kidney problems, rheumatism etc[].


It was used medicinally to treat viper bites, hydrophobia (rabies) and heart ailments, and as an abortifascient[],

Agroforestry Uses:

Very tolerant of trimming, this plant makes an excellent hedge[, , ]. The plants are often used in topiary and even when fairly old, the trees can be cut back into old wood and will resprout[]. One report says that trees up to 1,000 years old respond well to trimming[].
Some cultivars can be grown as a ground cover when planted about 1 metre or more apart each way[]. 'Repandens' has been recommended[].

Other Uses

The bark of most, if not all species of taxus is a moderate source of tannins[, ]. It is used in several species to produce a red dye[].

A decoction of the leaves is used as an insecticide[, ].

The wood is burnt as an incense[].

The heartwood is red, the sapwood is white, The wood is heavy, hard, durable, elastic, takes a good polish but requires long seasoning. Highly esteemed by cabinet makers, it is also used for bows, tool handles etc[, , , , , , , ]. Due to its hardness, the wood was used for shuttles, cogs, axle-trees, and pulley-pins[]. The colourful wood has been used to veneer furniture, to make lute bodies, bowls, tankards, combs, pegs, and various art objects[]. It is an excellent wood for carving and wood turning because its contorted growth and 'burls' form intricate, vari-coloured patterns[].
The wood makes a good firewood[].

Propagation

Seed - can be very slow to germinate, often taking 2 or more years[, ]. It is best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn when it should germinate 18 months later. Stored seed may take 2 years or more to germinate. 4 months warm followed by 4 months cold stratification may help reduce the germination time[]. Harvesting the seed 'green' (when fully developed but before it has dried on the plant) and then sowing it immediately has not been found to reduce the germination time because the inhibiting factors develop too early[]. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots once they are large enough to handle and grow them on in pots in a cold frame. The seedlings are very slow-growing and will probably require at least 2 years of pot cultivation before being large enough to plant out. Any planting out is best done in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts[].
Cuttings of half-ripe terminal shoots, 5 - 8cm long, July/August in a shaded frame. Should root by late September but leave them in the frame over winter and plant out in late spring[]. High percentage[].
Cuttings of ripe terminal shoots, taken in winter after a hard frost, in a shaded frame[].
Layering