Thuja occidentalis
L.
Cupressaceae
Chamaecyparis boursieri Carrière
Cupressus arborvitae O.Targ.Tozz.
Cupressus nobleana (Beissn.) Lavallée
Juniperus ericoides Mast.
Retinispora devriesiana Mast.
Retinispora dubia Carrière
Retinispora ellwangeriana Carrière
Retinispora glaucescens Hochst. ex Beissn.
Retinispora keteleeri Beissn.
Retinispora meldensis Carrière
Retinispora nobleana Beissn.
Retinispora pygmaea Beissn.
Retinispora troubetzkoyana auct.
Thuja bodmeri Beissn.
Thuja canadensis K.Koch
Thuja caucasica Gordon
Thuja compacta Standish ex Gordon
Thuja devriesiana Carrière
Thuja ellwangeriana Carrière
Thuja ericoides Gordon
Thuja globosa Beissn.
Thuja hoveyi Gordon
Thuja minor Carrière
Thuja nana Carrière
Thuja obtusa Moench
Thuja odorata Marshall
Thuja plicata pendula (Gordon) Gordon
Thuja procera Salisb.
Thuja recurvata-nana Stelzner
Thuja sibirica Gordon
Thuja tatarica Gordon
Thuja theophrasti Nieuwl.
Thuja triangularis Defresne ex Beer
Thuja variegata Marshall
Thuja vervaeneana Van Geert ex Gordon
Thuja wareana lutea Van Geert
Common Name: American Arbor-Vitae
General Information
Thuja occidentalis is an evergreen tree with a conical crown; it usually grows up to 15 metres tall, exceptionally to 38 metres, though it is stunted or prostrate in harsh environments. The straight, cylindrical bole is up to 90cm in diameter (exceptionally to 180cm) and is sometimes divided into 2 - 3 secondary stems. The tree often reproduces by means of layering or by forming erect, rooted branches from fallen trunks[
270- Title
- Flora of N. America
- Publication
-
- Author
-
- Website
- http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/fna/
- Publisher
-
- Year
- 0
- ISBN
-
- Description
- An on-line version of the flora with an excellent description of the plant including a brief mention of plant uses.
].
Thuja occidentalis is an important timber tree, the wood being used especially for applications requiring decay resistance. It also has a range of medicinal uses, was a traditional food of the native N. Americans and has a range of other uses. The tree is often grown as a timber crop in temperate regions, and is widely utilized as an ornamental - it has more than 120 named cultivars. It was probably the first North American tree introduced into Europe (ca 1566)[
270- Title
- Flora of N. America
- Publication
-
- Author
-
- Website
- http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/fna/
- Publisher
-
- Year
- 0
- ISBN
-
- Description
- An on-line version of the flora with an excellent description of the plant including a brief mention of plant uses.
].
Thuja occidentalis is extremely widespread and in some parts of its range is increasing by invasion of abandoned farmland. The plant is classified as 'Least Concern' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(2013)[
338- Title
- IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
- Publication
-
- Author
-
- Website
- http://www.iucnredlist.org/
- Publisher
-
- Year
- 0
- ISBN
-
- Description
- A list of plants under threat and facing possible extinction, usually with brief details of the threats and information on habitat.
].
Known Hazards
The essential oil in this plant contains thujone. Thujone is a GABA receptor antagonist which allows neurons to fire more easily. In larger doses this can cause muscle spasms and convulsions, and can also be toxic to brain, kidney, and liver cells.
There has been a lot of negative press regarding thujone, particularly in the mid 19th century when thujone was reported to be more dangerous than alcohol - since shown to be exaggerated; and reports in the 1970’s that it might have a similar effect on the brain to THC (found in cannabis) – since found to be incorrect.
Thujone is probably best known for its use in the alcoholic drink ‘Absinthe’. It is also found in the essential oils of many other plants that are used in herbal medicines and foods, including Arborvitae (Thuja species), some Junipers (Juniperus species), Wormwoods (especially Artemisia absinthium) and Sage (Salvia officinalis). There are some legal restrictions in various countries on the quantity of thujone that can be added to foods and drinks and these vary between countries.
Side effects from consuming thujone can include sleeplessness and anxiety but, unless the pure essential oil is used, the quantity of thujone found in plants is well within safety levels. Pregnant women, however, may be advised to restrict their use of thujone-containing plants.
Botanical References
11- Title
- Trees and Shrubs Hardy in Great Britain. Vol 1 - 4 and Supplement.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bean. W.
- Publisher
- Murray
- Year
- 1981
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- A classic with a wealth of information on the plants, but poor on pictures.
,
43- Title
- Gray's Manual of Botany.Eighth Edition
- Publication
-
- Author
- Fernald. M. L.
- Publisher
- American Book Co.; New York
- Year
- 1950
- ISBN
- 0442222505
- Description
- A bit dated but a good and concise flora of the eastern part of N. America.
,
200- Title
- The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Huxley. A.
- Publisher
- MacMillan Press
- Year
- 1992
- ISBN
- 0-333-47494-5
- Description
- Excellent and very comprehensive, though it contains a number of silly mistakes. Readable yet also very detailed.
Range
Central and eastern N. America - Manitoba to New Brunswick, south to Illinois, Tennessee and Virginia
Habitat
Swamps and cool rocky banks of streams[
43- Title
- Gray's Manual of Botany.Eighth Edition
- Publication
-
- Author
- Fernald. M. L.
- Publisher
- American Book Co.; New York
- Year
- 1950
- ISBN
- 0442222505
- Description
- A bit dated but a good and concise flora of the eastern part of N. America.
], forming dense almost impenetrable forests[
82- Title
- Manual of the Trees of N. America.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Sargent. C. S.
- Website
- http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
- Publisher
- Dover Publications Inc. New York.
- Year
- 1965
- ISBN
- 0-486-20278-X
- Description
- Two volumes, a comprehensive listing of N. American trees though a bit out of date now. Good details on habitats, some details on plant uses. Not really for the casual reader. It can be downloaded from the internet.
,
165- Title
- The Dictionary of Modern Herbalism.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Mills. S. Y.
- Publisher
-
- Year
-
- ISBN
-
- Description
- An excellent small herbal.
]. On mostly calcareous substrates, neutral to basic swamps, shores of lakes and rivers, uplands, cliffs, and talus; at elevations up to 900 metres[
270- Title
- Flora of N. America
- Publication
-
- Author
-
- Website
- http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/fna/
- Publisher
-
- Year
- 0
- ISBN
-
- Description
- An on-line version of the flora with an excellent description of the plant including a brief mention of plant uses.
].
Properties
Conservation Status | Least Concern |
Edibility Rating | |
Medicinal Rating | |
Other Uses Rating | |
Habit | Evergreen Tree |
Height | 15.00 m |
Growth Rate | Slow |
Pollinators | Wind |
Cultivation Status | Wild |
Cultivation Details
Thuja occidentalis occupies a geographical range touching in the north on the subarctic taiga-tundra interface and in the south it extends well into the belt of deciduous angiosperm forests. It is a very hardy tree, tolerating very cold winters with temperatures down to -46°c[
200- Title
- The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Huxley. A.
- Publisher
- MacMillan Press
- Year
- 1992
- ISBN
- 0-333-47494-5
- Description
- Excellent and very comprehensive, though it contains a number of silly mistakes. Readable yet also very detailed.
,
238- Title
- Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bown. D.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley, London.
- Year
- 1995
- ISBN
- 0-7513-020-31
- Description
- A very well presented and informative book on herbs from around the globe. Plenty in it for both the casual reader and the serious student. Just one main quibble is the silly way of having two separate entries for each plant.
]. In cold weather the leaves turn brown, becoming green again in the spring[
226- Title
- Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lauriault. J.
- Publisher
- Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ontario.
- Year
- 1989
- ISBN
- 0889025649
- Description
- Very good on identification for non-experts, the book also has a lot of information on plant uses.
].
Prefers a permanently moist soil[
1- Title
- RHS Dictionary of Plants plus Supplement. 1956
- Publication
-
- Author
- F. Chittendon.
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press
- Year
- 1951
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- Comprehensive listing of species and how to grow them. Somewhat outdated, it has been replaced in 1992 by a new dictionary (see [200]).
], it is intolerant of dry soils[
11- Title
- Trees and Shrubs Hardy in Great Britain. Vol 1 - 4 and Supplement.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bean. W.
- Publisher
- Murray
- Year
- 1981
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- A classic with a wealth of information on the plants, but poor on pictures.
]. A useful plant for very poorly-drained soils[
185- Title
- Conifers in the British Isles.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Mitchell. A. F.
- Publisher
- HMSO
- Year
- 1975
- ISBN
- 0-11-710012-9
- Description
- A bit out of date (first published in 1972), but an excellent guide to how well the various species of conifers grow in Britain giving locations of trees.
,
200- Title
- The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Huxley. A.
- Publisher
- MacMillan Press
- Year
- 1992
- ISBN
- 0-333-47494-5
- Description
- Excellent and very comprehensive, though it contains a number of silly mistakes. Readable yet also very detailed.
]. It grows equally well in swamps and on dry ground, but avoids extremes of both habitats; it is often growing abundantly on soils over limestone in upland areas and on alluvial soils with a high organic and mineral content in lowlands (rich fens supporting forest)[
338- Title
- IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
- Publication
-
- Author
-
- Website
- http://www.iucnredlist.org/
- Publisher
-
- Year
- 0
- ISBN
-
- Description
- A list of plants under threat and facing possible extinction, usually with brief details of the threats and information on habitat.
]. The best stands in America are on well-drained soils[
11- Title
- Trees and Shrubs Hardy in Great Britain. Vol 1 - 4 and Supplement.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bean. W.
- Publisher
- Murray
- Year
- 1981
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- A classic with a wealth of information on the plants, but poor on pictures.
]. Grows well in heavy clay soils. Succeeds in sandy soils[
188- Title
- The RHS Gardener's Encyclopedia of Plants and Flowers
- Publication
-
- Author
- Brickell. C.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley Publishers Ltd.
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-86318-386-7
- Description
- Excellent range of photographs, some cultivation details but very little information on plant uses.
] and on chalk[
200- Title
- The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Huxley. A.
- Publisher
- MacMillan Press
- Year
- 1992
- ISBN
- 0-333-47494-5
- Description
- Excellent and very comprehensive, though it contains a number of silly mistakes. Readable yet also very detailed.
].
It is usually a slow growing and short-lived tree in cultivation in Britain and rarely looks thrifty[
81- Title
- Conifers.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Rushforth. K.
- Publisher
- Christopher Helm
- Year
- 1987
- ISBN
- 0-7470-2801-X
- Description
- Deals with conifers that can be grown outdoors in Britain. Good notes on cultivation and a few bits about plant uses.
,
185- Title
- Conifers in the British Isles.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Mitchell. A. F.
- Publisher
- HMSO
- Year
- 1975
- ISBN
- 0-11-710012-9
- Description
- A bit out of date (first published in 1972), but an excellent guide to how well the various species of conifers grow in Britain giving locations of trees.
]. However, there are some good specimens in western Britain[
4- Title
- A Modern Herbal.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Grieve.
- Publisher
- Penguin
- Year
- 1984
- ISBN
- 0-14-046-440-9
- Description
- Not so modern (1930's?) but lots of information, mainly temperate plants.
,
14- Title
- Complete Guide to Herbs.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Holtom. J. and Hylton. W.
- Publisher
- Rodale Press
- Year
- 1979
- ISBN
- 0-87857-262-7
- Description
- A good herbal.
]. Some cultivars are more healthy, 'Lutea' is growing very well in several places and 'Spiralis' is also growing well[
185- Title
- Conifers in the British Isles.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Mitchell. A. F.
- Publisher
- HMSO
- Year
- 1975
- ISBN
- 0-11-710012-9
- Description
- A bit out of date (first published in 1972), but an excellent guide to how well the various species of conifers grow in Britain giving locations of trees.
].
Trees live 200 - 300 years in the wild[
226- Title
- Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lauriault. J.
- Publisher
- Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ontario.
- Year
- 1989
- ISBN
- 0889025649
- Description
- Very good on identification for non-experts, the book also has a lot of information on plant uses.
].
The tree is sometimes planted for timber tree in central Europe[
50- Title
- Flora Europaea
- Publication
-
- Author
- ?
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Year
- 1964
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- An immense work in 6 volumes (including the index). The standard reference flora for Europe, it is very terse though and with very little extra information. Not for the casual reader.
].
Plants cannot regenerate from old wood. Pruning is not normally necessary for this species, any pruning that is carried out should be done with care, not cutting back into old wood[
238- Title
- Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bown. D.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley, London.
- Year
- 1995
- ISBN
- 0-7513-020-31
- Description
- A very well presented and informative book on herbs from around the globe. Plenty in it for both the casual reader and the serious student. Just one main quibble is the silly way of having two separate entries for each plant.
].
The wood and the foliage are strongly aromatic[
226- Title
- Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lauriault. J.
- Publisher
- Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ontario.
- Year
- 1989
- ISBN
- 0889025649
- Description
- Very good on identification for non-experts, the book also has a lot of information on plant uses.
]. The crushed leaves have a scent of apples[
185- Title
- Conifers in the British Isles.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Mitchell. A. F.
- Publisher
- HMSO
- Year
- 1975
- ISBN
- 0-11-710012-9
- Description
- A bit out of date (first published in 1972), but an excellent guide to how well the various species of conifers grow in Britain giving locations of trees.
].
Edible Uses
Pith of young shoots - cooked[
105- Title
- Tanaka's Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Tanaka. T. & Nakao S.
- Publisher
- Keigaku Publishing; Tokyo
- Year
- 1976
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- The most comprehensive list of edible plants I've come across. Only the briefest entry for each species, though, and some of the entries are more than a little dubious. Not for the casual reader.
]. It can be added to soups[
177- Title
- Plants for Human Consumption.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Kunkel. G.
- Publisher
- Koeltz Scientific Books
- Year
- 1984
- ISBN
- 3874292169
- Description
- An excellent book for the dedicated. A comprehensive listing of Latin names with a brief list of edible parts.
]. Pleasantly sweet, the pith was used as the basis of the soup according to one report[
183- Title
- Cornucopia - A Source Book of Edible Plants.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Facciola. S.
- Publisher
- Kampong Publications
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-9628087-0-9
- Description
- Excellent. Contains a very wide range of conventional and unconventional food plants (including tropical) and where they can be obtained (mainly N. American nurseries but also research institutes and a lot of other nurseries from around the world.
].
Inner bark - cooked. It is only used in times of emergency or scarcity[
213- Title
- Earth Medicine, Earth Food.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Weiner. M. A.
- Publisher
- Ballantine Books
- Year
- 1980
- ISBN
- 0-449-90589-6
- Description
- A nice book to read though it is difficult to look up individual plants since the book is divided into separate sections dealing with the different medicinal uses plus a section on edible plants. Common names are used instead of botanical.
]. The inner bark can be dried and ground into a powder, then used with wheat or other cereals in making bread, biscuits etc.
The leafy branchlets are used as a tea substitute[
159- Title
- Wild Food Plants of Indiana.
- Publication
-
- Author
- McPherson. A. and S.
- Publisher
- Indiana University Press
- Year
- 1977
- ISBN
- 0-253-28925-4
- Description
- A nice pocket guide to this region of America.
,
177- Title
- Plants for Human Consumption.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Kunkel. G.
- Publisher
- Koeltz Scientific Books
- Year
- 1984
- ISBN
- 3874292169
- Description
- An excellent book for the dedicated. A comprehensive listing of Latin names with a brief list of edible parts.
,
257- Title
- Native American Ethnobotany
- Publication
-
- Author
- Moerman. D.
- Publisher
- Timber Press. Oregon.
- Year
- 1998
- ISBN
- 0-88192-453-9
- Description
- Very comprehensive but terse guide to the native uses of plants. Excellent bibliography, fully referenced to each plant, giving a pathway to further information. Not for the casual reader.
] but are probably best avoided by pregnant women[
165- Title
- The Dictionary of Modern Herbalism.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Mills. S. Y.
- Publisher
-
- Year
-
- ISBN
-
- Description
- An excellent small herbal.
]. An aromatic flavour[
183- Title
- Cornucopia - A Source Book of Edible Plants.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Facciola. S.
- Publisher
- Kampong Publications
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-9628087-0-9
- Description
- Excellent. Contains a very wide range of conventional and unconventional food plants (including tropical) and where they can be obtained (mainly N. American nurseries but also research institutes and a lot of other nurseries from around the world.
]. Another report says that the foliage and bark are used, the resulting tea is a good source of vitamin C[
226- Title
- Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lauriault. J.
- Publisher
- Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ontario.
- Year
- 1989
- ISBN
- 0889025649
- Description
- Very good on identification for non-experts, the book also has a lot of information on plant uses.
].
Medicinal
American arbor-vitae was much used by many native North American Indian tribes as a medicine to treat fevers, coughs, headaches, swollen hands and rheumatic problems[
254- Title
- The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants
- Publication
-
- Author
- Chevallier. A.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley. London
- Year
- 1996
- ISBN
- 9-780751-303148
- Description
- An excellent guide to over 500 of the more well known medicinal herbs from around the world.
,
257- Title
- Native American Ethnobotany
- Publication
-
- Author
- Moerman. D.
- Publisher
- Timber Press. Oregon.
- Year
- 1998
- ISBN
- 0-88192-453-9
- Description
- Very comprehensive but terse guide to the native uses of plants. Excellent bibliography, fully referenced to each plant, giving a pathway to further information. Not for the casual reader.
]. The plant has an established antiviral activity and is most commonly used in modern herbalism to treat warts and polyps, being prescribed both internally and externally for these conditions[
254- Title
- The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants
- Publication
-
- Author
- Chevallier. A.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley. London
- Year
- 1996
- ISBN
- 9-780751-303148
- Description
- An excellent guide to over 500 of the more well known medicinal herbs from around the world.
]. The plant can be used to induce menstruation and so should not be prescribed for pregnant women[
238- Title
- Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bown. D.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley, London.
- Year
- 1995
- ISBN
- 0-7513-020-31
- Description
- A very well presented and informative book on herbs from around the globe. Plenty in it for both the casual reader and the serious student. Just one main quibble is the silly way of having two separate entries for each plant.
].
The recently dried leafy young twigs are alterative, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, aromatic, astringent, diaphoretic, diuretic and emmenagogue[
4- Title
- A Modern Herbal.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Grieve.
- Publisher
- Penguin
- Year
- 1984
- ISBN
- 0-14-046-440-9
- Description
- Not so modern (1930's?) but lots of information, mainly temperate plants.
,
7- Title
- Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Chiej. R.
- Publisher
- MacDonald
- Year
- 1984
- ISBN
- 0-356-10541-5
- Description
- Covers plants growing in Europe. Also gives other interesting information on the plants. Good photographs.
,
21- Title
- The Herb Book.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lust. J.
- Publisher
- Bantam books
- Year
- 1983
- ISBN
- 0-553-23827-2
- Description
- Lots of information tightly crammed into a fairly small book.
,
165- Title
- The Dictionary of Modern Herbalism.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Mills. S. Y.
- Publisher
-
- Year
-
- ISBN
-
- Description
- An excellent small herbal.
]. The plant is being used internally in the treatment of cancer[
238- Title
- Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bown. D.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley, London.
- Year
- 1995
- ISBN
- 0-7513-020-31
- Description
- A very well presented and informative book on herbs from around the globe. Plenty in it for both the casual reader and the serious student. Just one main quibble is the silly way of having two separate entries for each plant.
], especially cancer of the uterus[
254- Title
- The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants
- Publication
-
- Author
- Chevallier. A.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley. London
- Year
- 1996
- ISBN
- 9-780751-303148
- Description
- An excellent guide to over 500 of the more well known medicinal herbs from around the world.
]. A tea made from the leaves is used in the treatment for bronchitis and other respiratory problems, colds, headaches and as a cough syrup[
222- Title
- A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants. Eastern and Central N. America.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Foster. S. & Duke. J. A.
- Publisher
- Houghton Mifflin Co.
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-395-46722-5
- Description
- A concise book dealing with almost 500 species. A line drawing of each plant is included plus colour photographs of about 100 species. Very good as a field guide, it only gives brief details about the plants medicinal properties.
,
254- Title
- The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants
- Publication
-
- Author
- Chevallier. A.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley. London
- Year
- 1996
- ISBN
- 9-780751-303148
- Description
- An excellent guide to over 500 of the more well known medicinal herbs from around the world.
]. The plants diuretic properties make it useful in treating acute cystitis and bed-wetting in children[
254- Title
- The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants
- Publication
-
- Author
- Chevallier. A.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley. London
- Year
- 1996
- ISBN
- 9-780751-303148
- Description
- An excellent guide to over 500 of the more well known medicinal herbs from around the world.
].
The leaves are used in steam baths in the treatment of rheumatism, arthritis, colds etc[
222- Title
- A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants. Eastern and Central N. America.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Foster. S. & Duke. J. A.
- Publisher
- Houghton Mifflin Co.
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-395-46722-5
- Description
- A concise book dealing with almost 500 species. A line drawing of each plant is included plus colour photographs of about 100 species. Very good as a field guide, it only gives brief details about the plants medicinal properties.
].
Externally, the leaves are used as a wash for swollen feet and burns[
222- Title
- A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants. Eastern and Central N. America.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Foster. S. & Duke. J. A.
- Publisher
- Houghton Mifflin Co.
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-395-46722-5
- Description
- A concise book dealing with almost 500 species. A line drawing of each plant is included plus colour photographs of about 100 species. Very good as a field guide, it only gives brief details about the plants medicinal properties.
]. Extracts of the leaves can be painted on painful joints or muscles as a counter-irritant, improving local blood supply and thus facilitating the removal of toxins, easing pain and stiffness[
254- Title
- The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants
- Publication
-
- Author
- Chevallier. A.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley. London
- Year
- 1996
- ISBN
- 9-780751-303148
- Description
- An excellent guide to over 500 of the more well known medicinal herbs from around the world.
]. A tincture of the leaves has been used in the treatment of warts, piles, bed sores and fungal infections[
222- Title
- A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants. Eastern and Central N. America.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Foster. S. & Duke. J. A.
- Publisher
- Houghton Mifflin Co.
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-395-46722-5
- Description
- A concise book dealing with almost 500 species. A line drawing of each plant is included plus colour photographs of about 100 species. Very good as a field guide, it only gives brief details about the plants medicinal properties.
].
The leaves and young twigs can be harvested as required and used fresh or dried[
238- Title
- Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bown. D.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley, London.
- Year
- 1995
- ISBN
- 0-7513-020-31
- Description
- A very well presented and informative book on herbs from around the globe. Plenty in it for both the casual reader and the serious student. Just one main quibble is the silly way of having two separate entries for each plant.
].
'Oil of white cedar', obtained from the leaves, is an essential oil that is antiseptic, expectorant and rubefacient[
213- Title
- Earth Medicine, Earth Food.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Weiner. M. A.
- Publisher
- Ballantine Books
- Year
- 1980
- ISBN
- 0-449-90589-6
- Description
- A nice book to read though it is difficult to look up individual plants since the book is divided into separate sections dealing with the different medicinal uses plus a section on edible plants. Common names are used instead of botanical.
,
222- Title
- A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants. Eastern and Central N. America.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Foster. S. & Duke. J. A.
- Publisher
- Houghton Mifflin Co.
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-395-46722-5
- Description
- A concise book dealing with almost 500 species. A line drawing of each plant is included plus colour photographs of about 100 species. Very good as a field guide, it only gives brief details about the plants medicinal properties.
]. It is used internally to promote menstruation and relieve rheumatism[
213- Title
- Earth Medicine, Earth Food.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Weiner. M. A.
- Publisher
- Ballantine Books
- Year
- 1980
- ISBN
- 0-449-90589-6
- Description
- A nice book to read though it is difficult to look up individual plants since the book is divided into separate sections dealing with the different medicinal uses plus a section on edible plants. Common names are used instead of botanical.
]. This volatile oil is toxic and poisoning from overdoses has occurred[
213- Title
- Earth Medicine, Earth Food.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Weiner. M. A.
- Publisher
- Ballantine Books
- Year
- 1980
- ISBN
- 0-449-90589-6
- Description
- A nice book to read though it is difficult to look up individual plants since the book is divided into separate sections dealing with the different medicinal uses plus a section on edible plants. Common names are used instead of botanical.
], it should only be used under the supervision of a qualified practitioner and should not be prescribed for pregnant women[
238- Title
- Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bown. D.
- Publisher
- Dorling Kindersley, London.
- Year
- 1995
- ISBN
- 0-7513-020-31
- Description
- A very well presented and informative book on herbs from around the globe. Plenty in it for both the casual reader and the serious student. Just one main quibble is the silly way of having two separate entries for each plant.
]. The oil also stimulates the heart and causes convulsions in high doses[
213- Title
- Earth Medicine, Earth Food.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Weiner. M. A.
- Publisher
- Ballantine Books
- Year
- 1980
- ISBN
- 0-449-90589-6
- Description
- A nice book to read though it is difficult to look up individual plants since the book is divided into separate sections dealing with the different medicinal uses plus a section on edible plants. Common names are used instead of botanical.
].
A tea of the inner bark is used to promote menstruation[
213- Title
- Earth Medicine, Earth Food.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Weiner. M. A.
- Publisher
- Ballantine Books
- Year
- 1980
- ISBN
- 0-449-90589-6
- Description
- A nice book to read though it is difficult to look up individual plants since the book is divided into separate sections dealing with the different medicinal uses plus a section on edible plants. Common names are used instead of botanical.
] and in the treatment of consumption and coughs[
222- Title
- A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants. Eastern and Central N. America.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Foster. S. & Duke. J. A.
- Publisher
- Houghton Mifflin Co.
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-395-46722-5
- Description
- A concise book dealing with almost 500 species. A line drawing of each plant is included plus colour photographs of about 100 species. Very good as a field guide, it only gives brief details about the plants medicinal properties.
].
A homeopathic remedy is made from the leaves and twigs, gathered when the tree is flowering[
232- Title
- The Complete Homeopathy Handbook.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Castro. M.
- Publisher
- Macmillan. London.
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-333-55581-3
- Description
- A concise beginner's guide to the subject. Very readable.
]. It is used in the household as a treatment against warts, but also has a range of other applications that should only be prescribed by a competent homeopath[
7- Title
- Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Chiej. R.
- Publisher
- MacDonald
- Year
- 1984
- ISBN
- 0-356-10541-5
- Description
- Covers plants growing in Europe. Also gives other interesting information on the plants. Good photographs.
,
232- Title
- The Complete Homeopathy Handbook.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Castro. M.
- Publisher
- Macmillan. London.
- Year
- 1990
- ISBN
- 0-333-55581-3
- Description
- A concise beginner's guide to the subject. Very readable.
].
Agroforestry Uses:
Tolerant of regular trimming, though not into the old wood, it can be grown as a hedge[
226- Title
- Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lauriault. J.
- Publisher
- Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ontario.
- Year
- 1989
- ISBN
- 0889025649
- Description
- Very good on identification for non-experts, the book also has a lot of information on plant uses.
].
A natural pioneer species, it invades abandoned fields and pastures. especially in the northeast of the United States[
338- Title
- IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
- Publication
-
- Author
-
- Website
- http://www.iucnredlist.org/
- Publisher
-
- Year
- 0
- ISBN
-
- Description
- A list of plants under threat and facing possible extinction, usually with brief details of the threats and information on habitat.
]. It can be used in reforestation programmes to restore native woodland[
338- Title
- IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
- Publication
-
- Author
-
- Website
- http://www.iucnredlist.org/
- Publisher
-
- Year
- 0
- ISBN
-
- Description
- A list of plants under threat and facing possible extinction, usually with brief details of the threats and information on habitat.
].
Other Uses
The fresh branches are used as besoms[
4- Title
- A Modern Herbal.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Grieve.
- Publisher
- Penguin
- Year
- 1984
- ISBN
- 0-14-046-440-9
- Description
- Not so modern (1930's?) but lots of information, mainly temperate plants.
]. Their aromatic smell serves to deodorize the house whilst sweeping[
226- Title
- Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lauriault. J.
- Publisher
- Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ontario.
- Year
- 1989
- ISBN
- 0889025649
- Description
- Very good on identification for non-experts, the book also has a lot of information on plant uses.
].
The leaves have been kept in the clothes cupboard as a perfume, incense and insect repellent[
257- Title
- Native American Ethnobotany
- Publication
-
- Author
- Moerman. D.
- Publisher
- Timber Press. Oregon.
- Year
- 1998
- ISBN
- 0-88192-453-9
- Description
- Very comprehensive but terse guide to the native uses of plants. Excellent bibliography, fully referenced to each plant, giving a pathway to further information. Not for the casual reader.
]. The leaves and stems have been used as an incense[
257- Title
- Native American Ethnobotany
- Publication
-
- Author
- Moerman. D.
- Publisher
- Timber Press. Oregon.
- Year
- 1998
- ISBN
- 0-88192-453-9
- Description
- Very comprehensive but terse guide to the native uses of plants. Excellent bibliography, fully referenced to each plant, giving a pathway to further information. Not for the casual reader.
].
An essential oil is obtained from the leaves and branches, it is used in perfumery and in medicines[
46- Title
- Dictionary of Economic Plants.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Uphof. J. C. Th.
- Publisher
- Weinheim
- Year
- 1959
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- An excellent and very comprehensive guide but it only gives very short descriptions of the uses without any details of how to utilize the plants. Not for the casual reader.
,
57- Title
- Plants for Man.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Schery. R. W.
- Publisher
-
- Year
-
- ISBN
-
- Description
- Fairly readable but not very comprehensive. Deals with plants from around the world.
,
61- Title
- A Dictionary of Plants Used by Man.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Usher. G.
- Publisher
- Constable
- Year
- 1974
- ISBN
- 0094579202
- Description
- Forget the sexist title, this is one of the best books on the subject. Lists a very extensive range of useful plants from around the world with very brief details of the uses. Not for the casual reader.
,
226- Title
- Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lauriault. J.
- Publisher
- Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ontario.
- Year
- 1989
- ISBN
- 0889025649
- Description
- Very good on identification for non-experts, the book also has a lot of information on plant uses.
]. It is poisonous if taken internally[
65- Title
- A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Plants.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Frohne. D. and Pfänder. J.
- Publisher
- Wolfe
- Year
- 1984
- ISBN
- 0723408394
- Description
- Brilliant. Goes into technical details but in a very readable way. The best work on the subject that I've come across so far.
]. This essential oil also has insect repellent properties[
106- Title
- The Dictionary of Useful Plants.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Coon. N.
- Publisher
- Rodale Press
- Year
- 1975
- ISBN
- 0-87857-090-x
- Description
- Interesting reading but short on detail.
].
The tough and stringy bark has been used to weave fibre bags[
257- Title
- Native American Ethnobotany
- Publication
-
- Author
- Moerman. D.
- Publisher
- Timber Press. Oregon.
- Year
- 1998
- ISBN
- 0-88192-453-9
- Description
- Very comprehensive but terse guide to the native uses of plants. Excellent bibliography, fully referenced to each plant, giving a pathway to further information. Not for the casual reader.
].
The bark is a source of tannin[
257- Title
- Native American Ethnobotany
- Publication
-
- Author
- Moerman. D.
- Publisher
- Timber Press. Oregon.
- Year
- 1998
- ISBN
- 0-88192-453-9
- Description
- Very comprehensive but terse guide to the native uses of plants. Excellent bibliography, fully referenced to each plant, giving a pathway to further information. Not for the casual reader.
].
The wood is light, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse grained, very durable, easily worked, does not warp[
61- Title
- A Dictionary of Plants Used by Man.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Usher. G.
- Publisher
- Constable
- Year
- 1974
- ISBN
- 0094579202
- Description
- Forget the sexist title, this is one of the best books on the subject. Lists a very extensive range of useful plants from around the world with very brief details of the uses. Not for the casual reader.
,
82- Title
- Manual of the Trees of N. America.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Sargent. C. S.
- Website
- http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
- Publisher
- Dover Publications Inc. New York.
- Year
- 1965
- ISBN
- 0-486-20278-X
- Description
- Two volumes, a comprehensive listing of N. American trees though a bit out of date now. Good details on habitats, some details on plant uses. Not really for the casual reader. It can be downloaded from the internet.
,
171- Title
- Economic Botany.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Hill. A. F.
- Publisher
- The Maple Press
- Year
- 1952
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- Not very comprehensive, but it is quite readable and goes into some detail about the plants it does cover.
,
226- Title
- Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lauriault. J.
- Publisher
- Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ontario.
- Year
- 1989
- ISBN
- 0889025649
- Description
- Very good on identification for non-experts, the book also has a lot of information on plant uses.
,
235- Title
- An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Britton. N. L. Brown. A.
- Publisher
- Dover Publications. New York.
- Year
- 1970
- ISBN
- 0-486-22642-5
- Description
- Reprint of a 1913 Flora, but still a very useful book.
]. It weighs 20lb per cubic foot[
235- Title
- An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Britton. N. L. Brown. A.
- Publisher
- Dover Publications. New York.
- Year
- 1970
- ISBN
- 0-486-22642-5
- Description
- Reprint of a 1913 Flora, but still a very useful book.
]. It is used especially where contact with water cannot be avoided, for making items such as canoes, garden buildings, shingles, posts etc[
11- Title
- Trees and Shrubs Hardy in Great Britain. Vol 1 - 4 and Supplement.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Bean. W.
- Publisher
- Murray
- Year
- 1981
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- A classic with a wealth of information on the plants, but poor on pictures.
,
61- Title
- A Dictionary of Plants Used by Man.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Usher. G.
- Publisher
- Constable
- Year
- 1974
- ISBN
- 0094579202
- Description
- Forget the sexist title, this is one of the best books on the subject. Lists a very extensive range of useful plants from around the world with very brief details of the uses. Not for the casual reader.
,
82- Title
- Manual of the Trees of N. America.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Sargent. C. S.
- Website
- http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
- Publisher
- Dover Publications Inc. New York.
- Year
- 1965
- ISBN
- 0-486-20278-X
- Description
- Two volumes, a comprehensive listing of N. American trees though a bit out of date now. Good details on habitats, some details on plant uses. Not really for the casual reader. It can be downloaded from the internet.
,
171- Title
- Economic Botany.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Hill. A. F.
- Publisher
- The Maple Press
- Year
- 1952
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- Not very comprehensive, but it is quite readable and goes into some detail about the plants it does cover.
,
226- Title
- Identification Guide to the Trees of Canada
- Publication
-
- Author
- Lauriault. J.
- Publisher
- Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Ontario.
- Year
- 1989
- ISBN
- 0889025649
- Description
- Very good on identification for non-experts, the book also has a lot of information on plant uses.
]. The rot resistant properties of the wood make it an excellent timber for outdoor uses. These include rustic fencing, garden gates and sheds, and shingles. Canoes are still made from this wood because of its light weight, as are tubs and barrels. More industrial uses are found in kraft pulp and particleboard[
338- Title
- IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
- Publication
-
- Author
-
- Website
- http://www.iucnredlist.org/
- Publisher
-
- Year
- 0
- ISBN
-
- Description
- A list of plants under threat and facing possible extinction, usually with brief details of the threats and information on habitat.
]
Propagation
Seed - best sown when ripe in the autumn in a cold frame[
113- Title
- The Reference Manual of Woody Plant Propagation.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Dirr. M. A. and Heuser. M. W.
- Publisher
- Athens Ga. Varsity Press
- Year
- 1987
- ISBN
- 0942375009
- Description
- A very detailed book on propagating trees. Not for the casual reader.
]. Stored seed germinates best if given a short cold stratification[
113- Title
- The Reference Manual of Woody Plant Propagation.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Dirr. M. A. and Heuser. M. W.
- Publisher
- Athens Ga. Varsity Press
- Year
- 1987
- ISBN
- 0942375009
- Description
- A very detailed book on propagating trees. Not for the casual reader.
]. It can be sown in a cold frame in late winter. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in the greenhouse for their first winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts.
If growing large quantities of plants, the seed can be sown in an outdoor seed bed in mid spring[
78- Title
- Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Sheat. W. G.
- Publisher
- MacMillan and Co
- Year
- 1948
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- A bit dated but a good book on propagation techniques with specific details for a wide range of plants.
]. Grow the plants on for two years and then plant them out into their permanent positions in late autumn or early spring.
Cuttings of half-ripe wood, 5 - 8cm with a heel, mid summer in a shaded frame. Forms roots by the end of September but it should be overwintered in a frame[
78- Title
- Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Sheat. W. G.
- Publisher
- MacMillan and Co
- Year
- 1948
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- A bit dated but a good book on propagation techniques with specific details for a wide range of plants.
].
Cuttings of almost ripe wood, 5 - 10cm with a heel, September in a cold frame. Forms roots in the following summer. Plant out in autumn or spring[
78- Title
- Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers.
- Publication
-
- Author
- Sheat. W. G.
- Publisher
- MacMillan and Co
- Year
- 1948
- ISBN
- -
- Description
- A bit dated but a good book on propagation techniques with specific details for a wide range of plants.
].