In most of the literature referring to Taxus in the Himalayas only one species, Taxus wallichiana, is recognized for the entire mountain chain [often referred to as Taxus baccata wallichiana (Zucc.) Pilg.]. More recently, all of the populations occurring from central Nepal westward to northern Pakistan and Afghanistan have been assigned to the relatively recently described species Taxus fuana Nan Li & R.R.Mill, which was first known from the Himalayas of SW Xizang [Tibet]. This species has turned out to be synonymous with Taxus contorta Griff., a much earlier name, that has priority and must therefore be used[].
The species of Taxus are more geographically than morphologically separable; and they were all treated by Pilger (1903) as subspecies of Taxus baccata. All species are poisonous; most contain the anti-cancer agent taxol; and a study of heartwood constituents of Taxus baccata, Taxus brevifolia, Taxus cuspidata and Taxus floridana found them to be chemically almost identical. However, the vast ecological amplitude displayed by the various described species (over 60° of latitude and an impressive temperature and precipitation range) suggests that they are, in a meaningful sense, true species. Detailed study of the genus (not neglecting the cultivated representatives), including extensive fieldwork, is much needed and long overdue[].

Common Name:

General Information

Taxus contorta is an evergeen shrub or a tree that can grow up to 12 metres tall. The bole often branches from low-down; in mature trees ir can be up to 350cm in diameter[].
The plant is harvested from the wild mainly for medicinal use and for its wood. The plant has been harvested on a large scale for its bark and shoots, which are a source of the anticancer drug 'taxol'. This harvesting has proved to be unsustainable, and efforts are being made to cultivate the plant for this purpose. It is sometimes grown as an ornamental, mainly in Asia[].
Taxus contorta has undergone a recent, rangewide population decline of at least 50 % but probably less than 80%. The causes of the decline are varied, ranging from over-exploitation associated with medicinal use to overcollection for fuelwood and fodder. The decline is continuing and while the causes are largely understood, in many areas they will not be reversible. The plant is classified as 'Endangered' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(2013)[].

Known Hazards

All parts of the plant, except the flesh of the fruit (actually an aril), are potentially highly poisonous. They contain the alkaloid taxine and , if ingested, can cause nervousness, trembling, slow pulse, pupil dilation, difficult breathing, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, weakness and convulsions - in larger doses it can be fatal, having a paralyzing affect on the heart[, , , , , , ].

Botanical References

Range

Asia - northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, western China, Nepal, northern India

Habitat

Small scattered populations, usually along streams within coniferous forests; at elevations from 1,700 - 2,600 metres[]. Mixed forests and Pinus forests, usually in shade; at elevations from 2,500 - 3,400 metres[].

Properties

Conservation Status	Endangered
Edibility Rating
Medicinal Rating
Other Uses Rating
Habit	Evergreen Tree
Height	9.00 m
Pollinators	Wind
Self-fertile	No
Cultivation Status	Cultivated, Ornamental, Wild

Cultivation Details

Plants are very shade tolerant[], though they can also succeed in full sun. They thrive in almost any soil, acid or alkaline, as long as it is well-drained[, ]. Succeeds in dry soils. Plants grow best in a position sheltered from cold, dry winds[].
Since the exploitation of Himalayan yew for its foliage containing taxanes has proved to be unsustainable, cultivation efforts are being undertaken in the Himalayan foothills and elsewhere in India; this involves both species Taxus contorta and Taxus wallichiana.
Because of its similarity with the European Yew (Taxus baccata), this species is rarely found in cultivation in Europe, but is used as an ornamental elsewhere, as in Baguio, Philippines[].
Regeneration in the wild is poor in most areas[].
A dioecious species, both male and female forms must be grown if fruit and seed are required.

Edible Uses

We have no specific information for this species, but the fruit (a fleshy aril) of all members of the genus should be edible. The following is a general description.
Fruit - raw[, , , , ]. Very sweet and gelatinous, most people find it delicious though some find it sickly[]. A number of people who like the flavour do not like the texture which is often described as being 'snotty'[]
All other parts of this plant, including the seed, are highly poisonous. When eating the fruit you should spit out the large seed found in the fruit's centre. Should you swallow the whole seed it will just pass straight through you without harm. If it is bitten into, however, you will notice a very bitter flavour and the seed should immediately be spat out or it could cause some problems. The fruit is a fleshy berry about 10mm in diameter and containing a single seed[].

Medicinal

Bark, leaves and twigs have a range of traditional medicinal uses and are also used for the commercial production of Taxol, an anti-cancer drug. It is this latter use that is the main driver behind its decline in India and Nepal[].

The following uses were originally stated for Taxus baccata growing wild in India. It is now considered that Taxus baccata is not found wild in India and that references to that taxon apply to Taxus mairei and Taxus wallichiana (both in the eastern Himalayas) and Taxus contorta (in the western Himalayas)
The leaves and fruits are antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue and sedative[]. The leaves are used in the treatment of asthma, bronchitism hiccough, epilepsy and indigestion[].
Care should be taken in the use of this remedy - see notes above on toxicity.

Other Uses

The bark of most, if not all species of taxus is a moderate source of tannins[, ]. It is used in several species to produce a red dye[].

The wood is used for house construction (roof shingles especially) and furniture as well as more specialised uses such as grave coverings and beehives[].
In Pakistan especially, the timber is also valued as fuel[].

Propagation

Seed - can be very slow to germinate, often taking 2 or more years[, ]. It is best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn when it should germinate 18 months later. Stored seed may take 2 years or more to germinate. 4 months warm followed by 4 months cold stratification may help reduce the germination time[]. Harvesting the seed 'green' (when fully developed but before it has dried on the plant) and then sowing it immediately has not been found to reduce the germination time because the inhibiting factors develop too early[]. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots once they are large enough to handle and grow them on in pots in a cold frame. The seedlings are very slow-growing and will probably require at least 2 years of pot cultivation before being large enough to plant out. Any planting out is best done in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts[].
Cuttings of half-ripe terminal shoots, 5 - 8cm long, July/August in a shaded frame. Should root by late September but leave them in the frame over winter and plant out in late spring[]. High percentage[].
Cuttings of ripe terminal shoots, taken in winter after a hard frost, in a shaded frame[].
Layering