The genus Salix, as recognised in 2019, is comprised of probably more than 300 distinct species (over 500 if you also accept hybrid species). Many of these species are very similar, sometimes being separated as much by native range as by any other characteristic. Hybridization between species is common, when this is coupled with the high genetic and morphological variability within many species, and different levels of ploidy, the complexity of this genus is clear.
Misidentification of specimens is not rare, even amongst botanists, and many records of plant use will often equally apply to one or more related species that were not seen as distinct when the report was made. Equally, several species not included in the database will be found to have a range of these uses. In general, all species in the genus have medicinal uses, especially as antiinflammatories, analgesics and febrifuges, they can all serve as emergency foods, many of them have flexible stems and can be used in basket making, and many of them can be planted in moist to wet conditions in order to stabilize the soil and improve wildlife habitats.

Common Name: Goat Willow

General Information

Salix caprea is a deciduous shrub or more commonly a tree that usually grows around 6 - 10 metres tall but can reach 15 metres. The bole can be 75cm in diameter[, ].
The plant is harvested from the wild for local use as a food, medicine and source of materials. It is often grown as a soil stabilizer and is also used in reforestation projects[]. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant especially for cutting the flowering twigs, which are used as decorations in Christian celebrations of Easter[].
Salix caprea has a large extend of occurrence, with a population that is also likely to be large, and there are no reports of decline. Also there are currently no large scale threats to the species and it is well represented in ex situ collections. The plant is classified as 'Least Concern' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(2018)[].

Known Hazards

None known

Botanical References

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Range

Eurasia - Norway to Spain, east through Russia, the Caucasus and Turkey to the Russian Far East and northern China

Habitat

Slopes, wood margins, coppices, and mixed woods[]. Woods, scrub and hedges, usually on basic soils; at elevations up to 840 metres[].

Properties

Conservation Status	Least Concern
Edibility Rating
Medicinal Rating
Other Uses Rating
Habit	Deciduous Tree
Height	10.00 m
Growth Rate	Fast
Pollinators	Bees, Insects
Self-fertile	No
Cultivation Status	Cultivated, Ornamental, Wild

Cultivation Details

Salix caprea is a very cold-hardy plant, able to tolerate temperatures down to around -25°c when fully dormant[].
Succeeds in most soils, including wet, ill-drained or intermittently flooded soils[], but prefers a damp, heavy soil in a sunny position. Grows in drier soils than many other species of Salix[]. Plants are found most frequently on basic soils in the wild[]. Highly tolerant of atmospheric pollution and exposed positions, including maritime exposure[, ].
A fast growing tree, it establishes well[]. The tree has an untidy habit[].
A light demanding tree, it becomes tall and drawn when grown in woodland, though it grows well along the sunnier edges[].
Trees are very tolerant of cutting, they coppice well[]. Plants may be cut to the ground every 3 - 5 years in order to maintain a smaller shrub shape[].
The flowers are dioecious, male and female flowers being produced on separate plants. If seed is required then at least one plant of each sex need to be growing in reasonable proximity[].
Hybridization in the genus is common, especially when species are brought together in cultivation[].
Salix species are unusual in as much as, although they produce their flowers in catkins, these are insect rather than wind pollinated. Indeed, the flowers of many species are excellent sources of nectar for bees and other insects, especially valuable are those species that flower early in the growing season[].
The roots of Salix species are often vigorous and extensive and can range some distance from the plant. Several species are known to cause problems by growing into drains and drainage systems as their roots seek out moisture[].
Species in this genus are often notably susceptible to honey fungus[].

Edible Uses

Growing in harsh and difficult environments, as many willows do (they can be found within the arctic circle, on mountains and even in the desert), Salix species have often been utilized as an emergency food source. They are, indeed, often a highly favoured food source for birds and mammals and, whilst few species would lay claim to culinary excellence for humans, the young shoots and inner bark are both edible eaten either raw or cooked[].
We have no specific information for this species, but the inner bark can be eaten fresh or it can be dried, ground into a powder and then added to cereal flour for use in making bread etc. It has a very bitter flavour, The young shoots are also somewhat bitter and not very appetizing - unless you are really hungry of course![].

The leaves are used as an adulterant for tea[].

The source of an edible manna[]. No further details.

Medicinal

The bark, twigs, leaves, leaf buds, and flower buds of all Salix species contain phenolic glycosides, particularly salicin and salicortin (which breaks down when the plant material is damaged to produce salicin). The quantity of these compounds can vary greatly between species, and even within geographical races of the same species. Taste is a simple test to ascertain levels of these compounds - the more bitter the flavour, the more compounds it contains[].
Salicin has several valuable medicinal properties. In particular it is an effective antiinflammatory and pain reliever, and is also a valuable febrifuge[].
Modern medicine has used salicin as a pathway to producing the common pain reliever aspirin and, until a totally synthetic pathway of producing the medicine was discovered, several Salix species were harvested on a commercial basis to obtain salicin.
Many Salix species have a history of traditional use (not always documented). All parts of the plant can be used, but the bark is more commonly employed. Their pain-relieving and antiinflammatory properties make them useful in the treatment of verious conditions including headaches, neuralgia and joint pains, whilst they can also be very helpful in the treatment of fevers[, ].

A decoction of the leaves is used in the treatment of fevers[].

A distilled water from the flowers is aphrodisiac, cordial and stimulant[].
It is used externally in the treatment of headaches and ophthalmia[].

The ashes of the wood are useful in the treatment of haemoptysis[].

The stems and the leaves are astringent[].

A gum and the juice of the trees are used to increase visual powers[].

Agroforestry Uses:

The plant is fast growing and tolerant of maritime exposure, it can be used as a windbreak hedge and shelterbelt though it is of untidy habit[].
The plant has an extensive root system and is useful for consolidating the soil on slopes[].
The seeds are very light and so can travel some distance in the wind. The plant is therefore able to find its way to areas such as cleared woodland where the soil has been disturbed. Seedlings will grow away quickly, even in exposed conditions and the plant will provide good shelter for the establishment of woodland plants. Plants can also be grown on wasteland and dumps, where they will help to remove pollution and restore the soil[].Thus this makes it a good pioneer species and, except in wetter and moorland-type soils, it will eventually be largely out-competed by the other woodland trees. Its main disadvantage as a pioneer plant is that it has an extensive root system and is quite a greedy plant, thus it will not help as much in enriching the soil for the other woodland plants as other pioneer species such as the alders, Alnus species[].
As the species is fast growing there is potential for it be used in biomass production. There is also the potential for the species to be used for microclimate regulation and to improve the biodiversity of agricultural landscapes. Already the species is being used to restore barren and polluted land as it can extract heavy metals out of the soil[].
Some cultivars can be grown as ground cover[]. 'Pendula' is female whilst 'Kilmarnock' is a male, they should be spaced about 1.5 metres apart each way[].
The tree comes into flower early in the season and is an excellent source of nectar for bees[].

Other Uses

The stems are very flexible and are used in basket making[]. The plant is usually coppiced annually when grown for basket making, though it is possible to coppice it every two years if thick poles are required as uprights.

The bark is tough and flexible, it is used as a substitute for leather[].

The bark contains around 5 - 13% tannin[, ]. It can be used to make a black dye[].

Wood - soft, elastic, easily split. Used for baskets, rugs etc[, ]. A good quality charcoal is made from the wood[, ].
The wood is reddish or yellowish -brown, shiny, rather firm and tough; harder, heavier, and more tensile than that of many other European species of willow; it splinters easily. It can be used as firewood, as a source of charcoal, as a component of gunpowder, and as construction timber[].

Propagation

Willow seed is very small and light, and has a very short viability, perhaps as little as a few days in some species. It must be surface sown as soon as it is ripe. In nature the seed only germinates in disturbed soils in an open situation. In nursery conditions, sow the seed in a tray in a moderately sunny position and keep the soil moist. Germination is usually quite rapid - prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow on until large enough to plant out. Plants generally establish better if planted out whilst quite small.
Cuttings of mature wood of the current year's growth or older can root at almost any time of the year, though late autumn is considered best as this produces a better balance of root and stem growth the following spring[]. Plant them in a sheltered outdoor nursery bed or straight into their permanent position and give them a good weed-suppressing mulch. Most species are very easy, but cuttings of this species do not root well[]. Plant into their permanent positions in the following autumn.
Cuttings of half-ripe wood, early to mid summer in a frame. Cuttings of this species do not root well[].