The name Rubus fruticosus L. was originally described by Linnaeus using plant material that is now considered to comprise more than one species. Various attempts have been made to assign the name to a speciifc species, but most modern treatments see the name as representing an aggregate group of closely related species and do not use it to represent a single taxon. Rubus plicatus is generally taken to represent the original concept of Rubus fruticosus and is so treated here.
The genus Rubus, (especially the blackberries, which are often loosely referred to as Rubus fruticosus agg.) presents some of the most difficult taxonomic problems. This is partly due to the frequency of polyploidy; also to the frequent occurrence of hybridization; and also due to apomixis, where minor differences between plants are preserved because seedlings are genetically identical to their parent. As a result, differences of opinion on the number of species to be recognized from a given region can vary tremendously (for example, a treatment by M. L. Fernald[] in 1950 recognized 205 species for the northern half of the eastern United States plus parts of southeastern Canada, whilst H. A. Gleason and A. Cronquist in 1991 recognized only 25)[]. Where possible, a relatively conservative approach is taken here[].

Common Name: Blackberry

General Information

Rubus plicatus is a deciduous shrub producing each year a cluster of arching, prickly, biennial stems up to 300cm long from a woody rootstock New roots are produced where the tips of arching stems touch the ground, developing into new plants and thus forming dense, impenetrable thickets of growth. The stems only produce leaves in their first year, forming flower and leaf-bearing branches in their second year of growth and dying after fruiting[].
This plant produces one of the most popular temperate fruits - the blackberry. It is very commonly harvested from the wild, is grown in gardens and also on a commercial scale. The plant also has a wide variety of medicinal uses.

Known Hazards

None known

Botanical References

Range

Europe - Norway, south to France and Italy, east to Ukraine and the Balkans

Habitat

A very common and adaptable plant, found in hedgerows, woodland, meadows, waste ground etc[, ].

Properties

Edibility Rating
Medicinal Rating
Other Uses Rating
Habit	Deciduous Shrub
Height	3.00 m
Growth Rate	Fast
Pollinators	Insects, Apomictic
Self-fertile	Yes
Cultivation Status	Wild

Cultivation Details

Forms of Rubus plicatus are generally winter hardy to at least -18°c[].
Easily grown in a good well-drained loamy soil[, , ]. Succeeds in acid and calcareous soils[]. Tolerates poor soils[]. Established plants are drought resistant[]. Succeeds in sun or semi-shade[, , ], though it fruits less well in the shade[]. Plants will also fruit when grown in fairly deep shade or against a north facing wall, though the fruit will ripen later[]. Plants tolerate quite severe exposure[].
Rubus plicatus (Rubus fruticosus L., sensu str), is an aggregate species made up of several hundred slightly differing species. The reason for this is that most seed is produced by a non-sexual method (Apomixis) and is therefore genetically identical to the parent plant. On occasions when sexual production of seed takes place the offspring will all be slightly different from the parent plant and will then usually reproduce identical offspring by means of apomixy. Modern treatment of this aggregate usually does not use the name Rubus fruticosus because of the confusion over which species it should apply to[].
The following members of the aggregate have been highly recommended for their fruit - some of this have separate entries, but in general they are only listed here[]. Rubus badius. Rubus cyclophorus. Rubus gratus. Rubus nemoralis. Rubus oxyanchus. Rubus pyramidalis. Rubus separinus and Rubus winteri.
The following members are said to be nearly as good. Ruus balfourianus. Rubus broensis. Rubus carpinifolius. Rubus foliosus. Rubus fuscoviridis. Rubus infestus. Rubus insericatus newbouldianus. Rubus koehleri. Rubus largificus. Rubus londinensis. Ruus ludensis. Rubus macrophyllus. Rubus obscurus. Rubus pseudo-bifrons. Ruus rhombifolius. Rubus riddelsdellii. Rubus scaber. Rubus thyrsiflorus. Rubus vallisparsus. Ruus vestitus[].
Plants form dense thickets and this makes excellent cover for birds[]. They regenerate freely after being cut back or burnt in a fire[]. This species is also a good plant for bees and butterflies[].
This species has biennial stems, it produces a number of new stems each year from the perennial rootstock, these stems fruit in their second year and then die[].
Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus[].

Edible Uses

Fruit - raw or cooked[, , , , ]. The best forms have delicious fruits and, with a range of types, it is possible to obtain ripe fruits from late July to November[]. The fruit is also made into syrups, jams and other preserves[]. Some people find that if they eat the fruit before it is very ripe and quite soft then it can give them stomach upsets[].

Root - cooked. The root should be neither to young nor too old and requires a lot of boiling[].

A tea is made from the dried leaves[] - the young leaves are best[]. The leaves are often used in herbal tea blends[].

Young shoots - raw. They are harvested as they emerge through the ground in the spring, peeled and then eaten in salads[].

Medicinal

The root-bark and the leaves are strongly astringent, depurative, diuretic, tonic and vulnerary[, , , , ]. They make an excellent remedy for dysentery, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, cystitis etc, the root is the more astringent[, ]. Externally, they are used as a gargle to treat sore throats, mouth ulcers and gum inflammations[, ].

A decoction of the leaves is useful as a gargle in treating thrush and also makes a good general mouthwash[].

Agroforestry Uses:

Plants are spread by seed deposited in the droppings of birds and mammals. They often spring up in burnt-over, logged or abandoned land, quickly forming impenetrable thickets, and make an excellent pioneer species, creating the right conditions for woodland trees to move in. The trees will often grow in the middle of a clump of blackberries, the prickly stems protecting them from rabbits and other herbivores[].

Other Uses

A purple to dull blue dye is obtained from the fruit[].

A fibre is obtained from the stem and used to make twine[].

Propagation

Seed - requires stratification and is best sown in early autumn in a cold frame. Stored seed requires one month stratification at about 3°c and is best sown as early as possible in the year. Prick out the seedlings when they are large enough to handle and grow on in a cold frame. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring of the following year.
Cuttings of half-ripe wood, mid summer in a frame[].
Tip layering in July. Plant out in autumn.
Division in early spring or just before leaf-fall in the autumn[].