Common Name: Holly

General Information

Ilex aquifolium is an evergreen shrub or small tree that can grow up to 9 metres tall
The plant is harvested from the wild for local use as a food, medicine and source of materials. It is very commonly grown as an ornamental, valued for its many varieties with variegated leaves, its evergreen leaves and winter fruit display. It is a popular hedging plant.
Ilex aquifolium is a widespread species with a large population and no major threats. The plant is classified as 'Least Concern' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(2013)[].

Known Hazards

Ilex species in general contain several potentially toxic compounds, particularly saponins, glycosides and triterpenoids. These compounds also often have a range of potential health benefits[, , ].
The berries are usually the part of the plant most likely to be toxic, though the degree of toxicity is usually low. Their bitter flavour usually prevents a person eating more than one or two, but even a small handful of the fruit eaten by a healthy adult is unlikely to cause more than feelings of nausea that can lead on to vomiting and diarrhoea[].
The compounds in the leaves are particularly interesting. The leaves of many Ilex species around the world are commonly used to make health-promoting teas that, when drunk on a regular basis, help to regulate bodily functions and can reduce the risk of heart disease, lower blood-cholesterol levels etc (See Ilex paraguariensis or Ilex kaushue for examples)[]. Even these teas, however, if taken in very concentrated doses, can act as a laxative or cause vomiting. Indeed, several species are used by traditional peoples to induce vomiting as a means of purifying the body (see Ilex guayusa or Ilex vomitoria for examples)

Botanical References

, ,

Range

Western Europe from Norway to Spain and Portugal, through southern Europe to Romania and Bulgaria; N. Africa - Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia

Habitat

Found in most well-drained soils in scrub, hedges and woodland where it is often the dominant under-storey shrub[].

Properties

Conservation Status	Least Concern
Edibility Rating
Medicinal Rating
Other Uses Rating
Habit	Evergreen Shrub
Height	9.00 m
Growth Rate	Slow
Pollinators	Bees
Self-fertile	No
Cultivation Status	Wild

Cultivation Details

Plants require a minimum July temperature of 12°c for good fruit production[]. They tolerate short periods in winter down to -15°c[]. Severe frosts can kill whole branches, especially if they are open to the sky[]. The young growth in spring can be damaged by late frosts.
Succeeds in most soils, including peat, chalk, gravels, sand and shales[], so long as they are not water-logged, though wild plants are occasionally found in situations with standing winter water[]. Grows well in heavy clay soils[]. Established plants are fairly drought tolerant[]. Dislikes dry soils according to one report[] whilst another says that it succeeds in dry shade[]. Tolerates a pH range from 3.5 to 7.2[]. Succeeds in full sun or fairly dense shade[, , ], self-sown seedlings from woods and shady places making the most shade tolerant plants[]. Tolerant of maritime exposure[] though in such a situation it may lose some or all its leaves in the winter[].
A very ornamental plant, there are many named varieties[]. Flowers and fruits are formed on wood of the previous year's growth[].
A good bee plant[], the minute flowers are sweetly scented[]. The fruit is a valuable winter food source for birds.
Resents root disturbance, especially as the plants get older[]. It is best to place the plants into their permanent positions as soon as possible, perhaps giving some winter protection for their first year or two[]. Only move the plants in late spring or, preferably, in early autumn[].
Plants are quite slow growing, even when in good soils and situations[, ].
Trees are usually dioecious but hermaphrodite forms are available. Male and female plants must usually be grown if seed is required.
Plants are capable of regenerating from the main stem both above and below ground level and, although the top may be killed in a fire, the plants will usually regrow from the base[].
Rabbits are particularly fond of this species and will quickly remove the bark.
This species is notably resistant to honey fungus[].

Edible Uses

The leaves have been used as a tea substitute[].

The roasted fruit has been used as a coffee substitute[]. Some caution is advised here, since the fruit can be purgative and emetic[].

Medicinal

Holly is little used in modern herbalism. The leaves are diaphoretic, expectorant, febrifuge and tonic[, , ]. They can be use fresh at almost any time of the year or can be harvested in late spring and dried for later use[, ]. They are used in the treatment of intermittent fevers, rheumatism, catarrh, pleurisy etc[, , ]. The juice of the fresh leaves has been successfully used in the treatment of jaundice[].

The berries are violently emetic and purgative[, ]. They have been used in the treatment of dropsy and as a powder they have been used as an astringent to check bleeding[]. The berries are toxic, especially to children, and should not be used medicinally except under professional supervision[].

The root has been used as a diuretic, though there are more effective diuretics available[].

The plant is used in Bach flower remedies - the keywords for prescribing it are 'Hatred', 'Envy', 'Jealousy' and 'Suspicion'[].

Agroforestry Uses:

An excellent hedge plant, tolerating hard clipping and maritime exposure and forming a dense stock-proof shelter[, , , , ]. Plants are fairly slow growing however[].
The cultivar 'Pendula' makes a very good carpeting ground cover plant when grown as a cutting on its own roots[]. It can be planted up to 1.2 metres apart each way, but is fairly slow to cover the ground[].

Other Uses

The plant (part not specified) contains the principle ilixanthine, a yellow colouring substance soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid. With alum it dyes yellow and with ferric chloride green[].

Extracts of both the flowers and the leaves are used as an ingredient in commercial cosmetic preparations as a skin conditioner[].

The wood is strong, hard and dense, it polishes well, though it must be well dried and seasoned or else it warps badly. It is beautifully white, except at the centre of very old trees, and is highly regarded by cabinet makers though it must be well seasoned[, , , ]. The heartwood of mature trees is used for printing blocks, engravings, turnery etc[, , ].
The wood makes a good fuel, burning well even when green[].

Propagation

Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a cold frame. It can take 18 months to germinate. Stored seed generally requires two winters and a summer before it will germinate and should be sown as soon as possible in a cold frame. Scarification, followed by a warm stratification and then a cold stratification may speed up the germination time[, ]. The seedlings are rather slow-growing. Pot them up into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow them on in light shade in a cold frame for their first year. It is possible to plant them out into a nursery bed in late spring of the following year, but they should not be left here for more than two years since they do not like being transplanted. Alternatively, grow them on in their pots for a second season and then plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer. Give them a good mulch and some protection for their first winter outdoors.
Cuttings of almost ripe wood with a heel, August in a shaded position in a cold frame. Leave for 12 months before potting up.
Layering in early autumn. Takes 2 years.