The status of several species in the genus Juniperus is still often a matter of contention between different botanists. We are generally following the treatment given in the 'World Checklist of Selected Plant Families' (http://wcsp.science.kew.org/qsearch.do), which accepts Juniperus excelsa in a strict sense with a range from the Balkans of Europe to the Caucasus. Juniperus polycarpos, previously treated as a subspecies of Juniperus excelsa, is seen as distinct, with a range from northeastern Turkey to Turkmenistan, whilst Juniperus seravschanica (also previously treated as a subspecies) is also treated as distinct, with a more easterly distribution from Iran and central Asia to the western Himalayas.

Common Name: Grecian Juniper

General Information

Juniperus excelsa is an evergreen tree with a narrow, pyramidal crown when young, becoming more spreading with age; it can grow 4 - 12 metres tall, sometimes reaching 20 - 25 metres. The bole on larger trees can reach 150 - 250cm in diameter[, , ].
The plant has a wide range of local uses, often being harvested from the wild for food, medicine and a range of materials. The foliage is sold in local markets for use as an incense[]. The plant is grown as an ornamental in gardens.
This species is very widespread and common in many areas. There is no indication of any overall decline, although regionally, especially in Central Asia, the subspecies polycarpos is in decline. The plant is classified as 'Least Concern' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(2013)[].

Known Hazards

None known

Botanical References

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Range

Southeast Europe to western Asia - Balkans, Turkey, Lebanon, the Caucasus and ?Iran.

Habitat

In shrubland, deciduous woodland and coniferous forest, montane Seriphidium maritimum steppes and on alpine scree or moraines, mainly on dry calcareous slopes, occasionally on siliceous rock; at elevations from 100 - 3,950 metres[].

Properties

Conservation Status	Least Concern
Edibility Rating
Medicinal Rating
Other Uses Rating
Habit	Evergreen Tree
Height	10.00 m
Growth Rate	Slow
Pollinators	Wind
Self-fertile	No
Cultivation Status	Wild

Cultivation Details

Juniperus excelsa is found mainly in the continental climate of western Asia with hot, dry summers and moderately cold winters. It grows mainly in regions where the mean annual precipitation is within the range 500 - 1,000mm. It is a moderately cold-hardy plant, able to tolerate temperatures down to around -20°c for short periods when dormant[, ]. Plants are more tender when young, and generally require a sheltered position[].
Succeeds in dry soils[]. Succeeds in most soils if they are well drained, preferring a neutral or slightly alkaline soil[] and succeeding on chalk[]. Established plants are very drought tolerant[].
Trees grow slowly and take two centuries or more to attain any harvestable size as a timber crop, so its exploitation for timber is or would not be sustainable if it occurred on a commercial scale[]
The plant is sometimes grown as an ornamental in gardens[, ].
The crushed foliage emits a warm resinous scent[].
Plants are usually monoecious though sometimes dioecious forms are found - in which case both male and female plants must be grown if seed is required[].

Edible Uses

Juniperus excelsa was formerly treated in a looser sense to include the species Juniperus polycarpos and Juniperus seravschanica. The three are now generally seen as distinct, though they are all very similar and have very similar properties. It can be very difficult to separate out the various uses attributed originally to Juniperus excelsa to any one of these three species - and, certainly on the traditional level, they are very likely to apply to all three. All the edible uses we know of are listed here - where possible we point out if they were specifically attributed to what is now one of the three species.

Seed cones (of Juniperus polycarpos) - raw or cooked. They can be baked and eaten[] Native people eat the uncooked cones with rice[].
The purplish-green to blue, globose cones are about 7 - 12mm in diameter and take 2 years to mature[, ].

Medicinal

Juniperus excelsa was formerly treated in a looser sense to include the species Juniperus polycarpos and Juniperus seravschanica. The three are now generally seen as distinct, though they are all very similar and have very similar properties. It can be very difficult to separate out the various uses attributed originally to Juniperus excelsa to any one of these three species - and, certainly on the traditional level, they are very likely to apply to all three. All the medicinal uses we know of are listed here - where possible we point out if they were specifically attributed to what is now one of the three species.

In the Himalayas (Juniperus seravschanica), the plant is considered useful as an antihypertensive, stimulant, appetizer, diuretic, carminative and anticonvulsant. It is used in folk medicine to treat a range of conditions including abdominal spasm, diarrhoea, asthma fever, headache, gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea[].

In Lebanese and Turkish folk medicine (this could refer to both Juniperus excelsa and Juniperus polycarpos), the seed cones are used to treat cutaneous diseases such as eczema and skin rash. It is used to treat a wide range of respiratory tract diseases like asthma, cough, common cold, bronchitis, pneumonia, throat inflammation and tuberculosis, urinary tract inflammations, rheumatism, and to remove renal and gall bladder stones[].

In various regions of the world, the plant is used to treat dysmenorrhoea, cough, bronchitis, colds, jaundice, tuberculosis, to induce menses and expel a foetus[, ]. The seed cones are used as a diuretic and emmenagogue[].
An infusion of the dried leaves is used to treat cardiac and nervous problems[].

A gum obtained from the plant (Juniperus polycarpos) is applied topically for relieving rheumatism pains, backache and to relieve the pain of toothache[].

The smoke from the branches is used in India to treat the delirium of fevers[].

Female cones are eaten raw or in a decoction to prevent stomach reflux[].

The plant contains high levels of the essential oils alpha-cedrene, junipene alpha-thujene, alpha pinene, alpha-cedrene, menthene and limonene[].
Alpha- and gamma-terpinenes found in the extracts of this plant are reported to have high antioxidant properties[].
A number of studies have shown that the monoterpene camponents of juniper essential oil enhance the oxidative stress resistance of living organisms[].
The essential oil has been shown to be strongly antifungal. The main component responsible far these antifungal activities in delta-3-carene[].
An essential oil obtained from the leaves and fruits have a strong antibacterial activity against various strains of bacteria, especially gram positive bacteria[].
Various extracts, especially the chloroform fraction, of the plant have shown inhibition of the tropical disease Leishmania[].
An extract of the seed cones has shown a good level of antitumor activity, especially the crude methanolic extract which showed 86.6% inhibition[]
The essential oil the seed cones has shown great antioxidant activity. The essential oil can act as natural preservative, even if used in very low concentration[].
Another study showed that the essential oil extracted from the fruits and leaves of true Juniperus excelsa showed a low level of antioxidant activity, whilst that obtained from the foliage of female Juniperus. poiycarpas plants was strongly antioxidant[]
A crude extract of the plant has been shown to have endothelium-dependent and endothelium independent vasodilator and cardiomodulatory effect[]
Extracts of the plant have shown a significant anticholinesterase activity, making it of potential interest in the treatment of Alzheimers disease[].

Other Uses

Juniperus excelsa was formerly treated in a looser sense to include the species Juniperus polycarpos and Juniperus seravschanica. The three are now generally seen as distinct, though they are all very similar and have very similar properties. It can be very difficult to separate out the various uses attributed originally to Juniperus excelsa to any one of these three species - and, certainly on the traditional level, they are very likely to apply to all three. All the non-medical or edible uses we know of are listed here - where possible we point out if they were specifically attributed to what is now one of the three species.

The plant is a source of various essential oils, obtained fom the wood, the seed cones, foliage etc. Actual and potential uses of these oils include medicinal, mood scents , aromatherapy, scent masks, room fresheners, soaps, insect repellents, cosmetics, fragrant candles, lotions and naturopathic medicines[].

The bark (Juniperus polycarpos and Juniperus seravschanica) is of immense thickness at the base of old trees, and is traditionally taken off in long pliant strips by local people who use it for roofing their huts, making pads for carrying water jars etc[, ].

The foliage is burnt as an incense[]. The crushed foliage emits a warm resinous scent[]. The dried leaves are generally mixed with other available aromatic plants and are used as incense[].
The aromatic wood is burned as an incense[].

The heartwood is red, often with a purplish tinge; the sapwood is yellowish. The fragrant wood is close and even-grained, moderately hard, very durable and of good quality[, ]. A useful wood for joinery, carpentry and furniture making[, ]. It is used in local construction and for making small objects, including pencils[, ].
The wood is often used for fuel and is sometimes made into charcoal[]

Propagation

The seed requires a period of cold stratification. The seed has a hard seedcoat and can be very slow to germinate, requiring a cold period followed by a warm period and then another cold spell, each of 2 - 3 months duration[, ]. Soaking the seed for 3 - 6 seconds in boiling water may speed up the germination process[]. The seed is best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold frame. Some might germinate in the following spring, though most will take another year. Another possibility is to harvest the seed 'green' (when the embryo has fully formed but before the seedcoat has hardened). The seedlings can be potted up into individual pots when they are large enough to handle. Grow on in pots until large enough, then plant out in early summer. When stored dry, the seed can remain viable for several years[].
Cuttings of mature wood, 5 - 10cm with a heel, September/early autumn in a cold frame. Plant out in the following autumn[, ].
Layering in September/early autumn. Takes 12 months[].